Aristotle pg. 164-218

In pages 164-218, Aristotle states that a speaker should focus on these three elements when writing a speech: the means of producing persuasion, the style, and the arrangement of the parts of speech. Ethos, pathos, and logos are the three sources of persuasion and the degree that each appeal is used in a speech should vary depending on the subject matter and audience. Being willing to adjust the degree of appeals for the subject and audience is an important skill for rhetoricians to master. For example, Aristotle explains that bigger audiences often require more general subject matter than highly detailed, while forensic speaking requires more details, and ceremonial speaking is often literary because it is usually read (pg. 198).

While speakers previous, such as Gorgias, were all about the art of flattering an audience, Aristotle is against such a thing. He says, “we ought in fairness to fight our case with no help beyond the bare facts: nothing, therefore, should matter except the proof of those facts” (pg. 165). He thinks that an argument could work with only appeals to logos and that would be the ideal argument. However, he recognizes that the ideal is not always possible and in those cases, other appeals are necessary. He claims that usually the ideal is not possible due to “defects of our hearers” (pg. 165). Here again, we see him thinking higher of himself than the majority of the population who are the hearers of speeches.

It is clear that Aristotle recognizes the power of language. When discussing style, he talks about the great variety in it. Words can carry a great deal of meaning and range in forms. He discusses nouns, verbs, metaphors, synonyms, compound words, metaphors, similes, and epithets. I appreciated this section of the reading because I enjoy finding schemes and tropes in everyday language. The subject of metaphors (making a comparison between two unlike words) is discussed a lot by Aristotle and is often used today. Kenneth Burke included the metaphor as one of his four “master tropes.” Metaphors are often used in song lyrics and may go overlooked, yet their symbolic significance is great and often defines the meaning of songs. Some song lyrics including metaphors are:

Firework –Katy Perry

“Baby, you’re a firework. Come on, let your colors burst…”

I’m Already There - Lonestar

“I’m the sunshine in your hair, I’m the shadow on the ground, I’m the whisper in the wind, I’m your imaginary friend…”

I am the Walrus – The Beatles

“I am the eggman, they are the eggmen. I am the walrus…”

Aristotle gives good advice regarding ethos saying that it is important to keep your language and emotions “appropriate” (p. 178). By being appropriate, he means following certain rules for certain subjects and emotions so as not to confuse or upset your audience. For example, you should not speak causally about a serious issue. This advice remains relevant today because public leaders have received criticism for sending mixed messages to their audiences when their behaviors and demeanor do not match their words. For example, this explicit tweet from Kanye West is completely inappropriate because his words do not match the severity of the subject matter, abortions.

Kanye’s tweet:

“An abortion can cost a ballin’ n***a up to 50gs maybe a 100. Gold diggin’ b**ches be getting pregnant on purpose #STRAPUP my n****s!”

Questions for discussion:

1.     Do you agree with Aristotle that the ideal argument should include just the bare facts and their proofs?

2.     Can you think of a contemporary example where a public figure was not “appropriate” because their words did not match their emotions or actions?

3.     Besides metaphors, what other schemes and tropes do you see often in contemporary arts such as song lyrics?